SPM Biology 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell (Part 4)

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SPM Biology 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell (Part 3)

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SPM Biology 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell (Part 2)

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SPM Biology 4 Chemical Composition of the Cell (Part 1)

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STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 20)

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STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 19)

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STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 18)

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STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 17)

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SPM Biology 10 Transport (Part 7)

SPM Biology 10 Transport: The Blood Vessels

There are 3 types of blood vessels:

1. Artery: carries blood away from the heart to all organs in the body.
2. Vein: carries blood from the organs back to the heart.
3. Capillaries: The smallest blood vessels which connect the artery and the vein.

   

   Artery, Vein, and Capillaries

Comparison of  artery, vein and capillary

SPM Biology 10 Transport (Part 6)

SPM Biology 10 Transport: Circulatory System

There are 2 types of circulatory system in human and other animals:

1. Closed circulatory system
2. Open circulatory system

1. Closed circulatory system

• The blood is contained in blood vessels and flows continuously in blood vessels.
• Valves can be found to maintain the flow of blood in one direction only.
• This system is found in larger animals such as vertebrates.

2. Open circulatory system

• The blood is not contained in blood vessels and is pumped from the heart into the cavity or space around the body cells.
• This system is only found in smaller animals such as insects and shellfish.

  

  Differences between open and closed circulatory system

Circulatory system in human

1. The circulatory system in human is called double closed and complete circulatory system.

2. This is because the blood flows in blood vessels and it passes through the heart twice in one complete circulation. 

Human circulation system

3. There are 2 main circulations:

1. Pulmonary circulation (heart → lungs → heart)
2. Systemic circulation (heart → all body tissues → heart)

Pulmonary circulation

• Deoxygenated blood is pumped out from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery which transports the blood to left and right lungs.
• At the lungs, gaseous exchange occurs. The deoxygenated blood in the pulmonary artery receives oxygen and becomes oxygenated blood and is transported from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart by pulmonary vein.

  

  Pulmonary circulation

• The main function of pulmonary circulation: to change deoxygenated blood to oxygenated blood.

Systemic circulation

• Oxygenated blood from the lungs which enters the left atrium of the heart is pumped into the left ventricle and is then pumped out of the heart through the aorta.
• The aorta branches to form arteries which transport oxygenated blood to all the body tissues.
• Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs in the body cells of an organ.
• The blood that is transported out of the organ by the vein is deoxygenated blood.
• The blood from the veins in all body tissues is transported into the vena cava and then enters into the right atrium of the heart.

  

  Systemic circulation

• The main function of systemic circulation: to transport oxygenated blood from the heart to all the body tissues.

  

  Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

SPM Biology 10 Transport (Part 5)

SPM Biology 10 Transport: Functions of Haemolymph in Transport

Circulatory system of insect

1. In insects, the blood does not flow in closed blood vessels.
2. Blood is pumped out of the heart to fill the spaces between the body cells.
3. The blood of the insect which mixes with the tissue fluid around the body cells is called haemolymph.
4. Exchange of materials between haemolymph and body cells occurs by simple diffusion.
5. O₂ and CO₂ are not transported by haemolymph. They are transported through the tracheal system.

SPM Biology 10 Transport (Part 4)

SPM Biology 10 Transport: Platelet, Plasma and the Functions of Blood

Platelet

• Platelets are fragments of larger cells in the bone marrow called megakaryoytes.
• They have no nucleus.
• They are involved in blood clotting.

  

  Platelet

Plasma

1. Plasma is a pale yellowish liquid consisting of 90% water and a large number of dissolved substances, such as :

• Digested food materials: glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, etc.
• Excretory products: urea, uric acid, etc.
• Mineral in the form of ions: calcium, sodium, potassium, etc. and vitamins.
• Dissolved gases.
• Plasma proteins such as albumin, globulin and fibrinogen.
• Hormones.

2. Blood plasma without plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, etc.) is called blood serum.

Composition of blood

Functions of blood

1. Transport of oxygen

• Blood transport oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin.
• In the alveolus, the partial pressure of O₂ is higher than the partial pressure of O₂ in the blood capillary.
• Hence, O₂ diffuses out from the alveolus into the blood capillary around the alveolus by simple diffusion.
• In the blood, O₂ combines with haemoglobin in the erythrocyte to form oxyhaemoglobin.
• O₂ is transported in the form of oxyhaemoglobin to the body cells which lack of O₂.
• At the body cells, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to release the O₂ to the body cells for cell respiration.

  

  Formation of haemoglobin

2. Transport of carbon dioxide

• CO₂ is transported by the blood in 2 main forms: Ion bicarbonate and carbaminohaemoglobin.
• CO₂ is transported from the body cells to the lungs to be removed during exhalation.
•  In the body cell, as a result of respiration which release CO₂, the partial pressure of CO₂ is higher then in the blood capillary.
• In the blood capillary, CO₂ dissolves in the blood plasma to form hydrogen carbonates ion and is transported in the blood plasma to the lungs.
• At the lungs, enzyme changes the hydrogen carbonate ion to CO₂ again.
• The CO₂ then diffuses out of the blood capillary into the alveolus to be removed during exhalation.
• CO₂ can also be transported in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin which is then transported in the erythrocyte to the lungs.
• At the alveolus, carbaminohaemoglobin breaks down to release the CO₂ which then diffuse into the alveolus to be expelled out during exhalation.

  

  Transport of carbon dioxide

3. Transport of digested food, vitamins and minerals

• Plasma transport digested food such as simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and dissolved minerals.
• Simple sugars, amino acids, minerals and vitamins B and C are absorbed into the blood capillaries in the villus of the ileum.
• These nutrients are then transported in the plasma from the ileum to the liver through the hepatic portal vein, then to the heart and subsequently to the whole body for usage or storage.
• Fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins A, D, E, K diffuse into the lacteal of the villus and are transported from the ileum to the lymphatic system, then back into the circulatory system through the left subclavian vein. The food materials are then transported in the plasma to the whole body.

4. Transport of nitrogenous waster products

• Nitrogenous wastes such as urea are by products of protein metabolism.
• Urea, uric acid. cretinine, bilirubin and ammonium ions are transported to the kidneys to be excreted.

5. Transport of hormones

• Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream which are then transported by the plasma to the target organs.
• For example, the insulin hormone is transported by the blood plasma from the pancreas to liver where it acts.

6. Transport of heat

• Heat is produce during cell respiration which occurs actively in the muscles and liver.
• The heat is distributed evenly throughout the whole body by the circulatory system.
• Excess heat can be removed by transporting it to the skin and the lungs by the blood so that the heat is dissipated.

7. Transport of water

• Water is universal solvent. It acts as a medium for all chemical reactions to take place in the body.
• The blood transports water to the whole body to regulate the equilibrium of water and osmotic pressure in the body.

STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 16)

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STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 15)

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STPM Biology Biological Molecules (Part 14)

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SPM Biology 10 Transport (Part 3)

SPM Biology 10 Transport - Leukocyte

Composition of human blood
Leukocyte (white blood cell)
1. Has a nucleus.
2. Has no fixed shape.
3. Larger size than erythrocyte.
4. The number of leukocytes in the blood is < than erythrocytes.
5. Function of leukocyte: to protect the body from diseases.
6. There are 2 types of leukocytes:

• Granulocyte
• Agranulocyte

Leukocytes

Granulocyte (granular cytoplasm)

1. Have granules in the cytoplasm.

2. Have lobed nucleus.

3. Are formed in red bone marrow.

4. There are 3 types of granulocytes:

• Neutrophil
• Eosinophil
• Basophil

5. Neutrophils are phagocytes which carry out phagocytosis to engulf and digest invading bacteria.

6. Eosinophils function in regulation the allergic responses.

7. Basophils produce heparin which prevents the blood from clotting.

Agranulocytes (nongranular cytoplasm)

1. Have no granules in the cytoplasm.

2. There are 2 types of agranulocytes:

• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes

3. Lymphocytes have a large spherical nucleus with little cytoplasm. They are formed in the lymph nodes of the lymphatic system. They produce antibodies to protect the body against diseases.

4. Monocytes has a kidney-shaped nucleus. They are formed in the bone marrow. They are phagocytes which carry out phogocytosis.